The Teaching of Vocabulary

The Teaching of Vocabulary

                Traditionally, the teaching of vocabulary above elementary levels was mostly incidental limited to presenting new items as they appeared in reading or sometimes listening texts. This indirect teaching of vocabulary assumes that vocabulary expansion will happen through the practice of other language skill, which has been proved not enough to ensure vocabulary expansion.

                There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when teaching vocabulary. This list below is based on the work of Gairns and Redman (1986):

·         Boundaries between conceptual meanings: knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g. cup, mug, and bowl).

·         Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several but closely related meanings (e.g. head: of a person, of a pin, of an organization).

·         Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form which has several meanings which are not closely related (e.g. a file: used to put papers in or a tool).

·         Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meaning (e.g. flour, flower).

·         Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g. extends, increase, expand).

·         Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speaker attitude or the situation.

·         Style, register, dialect: being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation.

·         Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language.

·         Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, lexical phrases.

·          Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word ( e.g. sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable, disability ).

·         Pronunciation: ability to recognize and reproduce items in speech.

The implication of the aspects just mentioned in teaching is that the goals of vocabulary teaching must be more than simply covering a certain number of words on a word list. We must use teaching techniques that can help realize this global concept of what it means to know a lexical item. And we must also go beyond that, giving learner opportunities to use the items learnt and also helping them to use effective written storage systems.

 Taken from, Syafni Zardia, Thesis, unpublished

Reading and Reading Comprehension

A.    Reading

Learning to read is an important educational goal. For both children and adults, the ability to read opens up new worlds and opportunities. It enables us to gain new knowledge, enjoy literature, and do everyday things that are part and parcel of modern life, such as, reading the newspapers, job listings, instruction manuals, maps and so on. According to Carell (1970:1) reading is by far the most important of the four skills in second language, particularly in English as a second or foreign language. Absolutely, if we assume the study of English as a foreign language around the world the situation in which most English learners learn.  

Also in (Pang. EPS 12) Reading is about understanding written texts. It is a complex activity that involves both perception and thought. Reading consists of two related processes: word recognition and comprehension. Word recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbols correspond to one’s spoken language. Comprehension is the process of making sense of words, sentences and connected text. Readers typically make use of background knowledge, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, experience with text and other strategies to help them understand written text.

According to Nuttal (199:11) reading is in interactive process, as conversation between reader and writer. Reading is a result of the interaction between the perception of graphic symbols that present language and the readers, language skill, cognitive skills, and knowledge of the words. There are many kinds of reading such as reading comprehension, skimming, and scanning, in this chapter I will draw and explanation about six genres text and clipping.

B.     Reading Comprehension

The first point in reading process is reading comprehension. Knowledge is a basic element for comprehension. It means that it is related to what we do not know the information provided in the passage. In this case, intelligent plays an important role besides concentration, motivation, interest, and background knowledge

Even in the 1960s, reading began to be referred to by psycholinguists as most active psycholinguistic guessing game a process whereby readers predicted what would come next on the basis of what they had already sampled from the text and then confirmed or corrected their hunches about the predicted meaning of the text, based on what the sampling provided Cohen (1994:211)

For at least a decade now, expert in  native and second language reading assessment have recommended that reading comprehension be measured in less traditional ways, the basic argument is that assessment has been too limited in scope. For example Johnston (1983:216) called for a series of new direction in the assessment of a reading comprehension in a native language

Gunning in Putra (2005:6) says that comprehension is constructive, interactive process involving the three factors, they are; the readers, the text, and the context in which the text is read. Eskey in Putra (2005:6) says that reading comprehension means knowing what one does not know or adding new information to what one already known. It can be understood that reading comprehension is the process in which a reader use his or her background knowledge to make sense of what she or he is reading. 

Taken From Sahri Ramdona Thesis, Unpublished 

Skimming and Scanning

A. Skimming and Scanning

            Skimming and scanning are two specific speed-reading techniques, which enable you to cover a vast amount of material very rapidly. These techniques are similar in process but different in purpose. Quickly "looking over" an article is neither skimming nor scanning. Both require specific steps to be followed.

1 Skimming

Skimming is a method of rapidly moving the eyes over text with the purpose of getting only the main ideas and a general overview of the content. According to Anderson (1969:62) skimming is not a haphazard, slipshod method of glossing over reading material. It is an efficient, speedy technique for finding facts in minimum amount of time. It is specific method of attacking a reading problem and would be efficient reader needs master the technique.

 I. Skimming is useful in three different situations.

a) Pre-reading--Skimming is more thorough than simple previewing and can give a more accurate picture of text to be read later.

b)  Reviewing--Skimming is useful for reviewing text already read.

c) Reading--Skimming is most often used for quickly reading material that, for any number of reasons, does not need more detailed attention.

                         II. Steps in skimming an article

a) Read the title--it is the shortest possible summary of the content.

b) Read the introduction or lead-in paragraph.

c) Read the first paragraph completely.

d) If there are subheadings, read each one, looking for relationships among them.

e) Read the first sentence of each remaining paragraph.

B. Scanning

Scanning rapidly covers a great deal of material in order to locate a specific fact or piece of information. Scanning is useful technique, use it to judge material after a rapid inspection; use it to obtain the overall structure of an article; use it to determine a line of argument, a point of view. The important point is keep using it and to incorporate into your basic reading skills. Durston (1969:66)

                         I. Scanning is very useful for finding a specific name, date, statistic, or fact without reading the entire article.

                        II. Steps in scanning an article.

a) Keep in mind at all times what it is you are searching for. If you hold the image of the word or idea clearly in mind, it is likely to appear more clearly than the surrounding words.

b)  Anticipate in what form the information is likely to appear-- numbers, proper nouns, etc.

c) Analyze the organization of the content before starting to scan.

d) If material is familiar or fairly brief, you may be able to scan the entire article in a single search.

e) If the material is lengthy or difficult, a preliminary skimming may be necessary to determine which part of the article to scan.

f)  Let your eyes run rapidly over several lines of print at a time.

g)      When you find the sentence that has the information you seek, read the entire sentence.

 III.In scanning, you must be willing to skip over large sections of text without reading or understanding them.

                        IV. Scanning can be done at 1500 or more words per minute.

  

Taken from Sahri Ramadona, Thesis, Unpublished

6 Text Genres

A.  Definition of 6 Text Genres

a.  Recount

1. Social function recount: To tell the readers what happened in the past through a sequence of events.

2. Generic Structure of Recount:

1. Orientation (who were involved, when and where was it happened)

2. Events (tell what happened in a chronological order)

3. Re-orientation (optional – closure of events)

3. Language features Recount:

· Use of pronouns and nouns (David, he, she)

· Use of action verbs in past (went, studied)

· Use of past tense (We went for a trip to the zoo)

· Use of adverbial phrases

· Use of adjectives

b. Report

1. Social function report: To describe the way things are (for example: a man –made thing, animals, and plants). The things must be a representative of their class.

2. Text organization report:

1. General classification (introduces the topic of the report/tells what phenomenon under discussion is.­)

2. Description (tell the details of topic such as physical appearance, parts, qualities, habits / behavior).

3. Language features report:

· Use of general nouns (Whales, Kangaroo, Computer)

· Use of present tense (Komodo dragons usually weigh more than 160 kg)

· Use of behavioral verbs (Snakes often sunbathe in the sun)

· Use of technical terms (Water contains oxygen and hydrogen)

· Use of relating verbs (is, are, has)

c. Anecdote/ Spoof

1. Social function spoof: To tell an event with a humorous twist.

2. Generic structure spoof text:

1. Orientation (who were involved, when and where was happened)

2. Events (tell what happened in a chronological order)

3. Twist (provide the funniest part of the story)

3. Language features spoof:

· Use of connectives (first, then, finally)

· Use of adverbial phrases of time and place (in the garden, two days ago)

· Use of simple past tense (he walked away from the village)

 d. Narrative

1. Social function narrative: To amuse or entertain the readers with actual or imaginary experience in different ways. Narrative always deals with some problems which lead to the climax and then turn into a solution to the problem.

2. Generic Structure Narrative:

1. Orientation (who was involved, when and where was it happened)

2. Complication (a problem arises and followed by other problems)

3. Resolution (provide solution to the problem)

3. Language features Narrative:

· Use of noun phrases (a beautiful princess, a huge temple)

· Use of adverbial phrases of time and place (in the garden, two days ago)

· Use of simple past tense (He walked away from the village)

· Use of action verbs (walked, slept)

· Use of adjectives phrases (long black hair)

 e.Procedure

1. Social function Procedure: To help us do a task or make something. They can be a set of instructions or directions.

2. Text organization:

1. Goals (the final purpose of doing the instruction)

2. Materials (ingredients, utensils, equipment to do the instructions)

3. Steps (a set of instruction to achieve the final purpose)

3. Language features:

· Use of imperative (Cut…... Don’t mix……..)

· Use of action verbs (turn, put)

· Use of connectives (first, then, finally)

 f. Description

1. Social Function descriptive: To describe a particular person, place or thing.

2. Generic Structure descriptive:

1. Identification (identify phenomenon to be described)

2. Description (describe parts, qualities, characteristics)

3. Language features descriptive:

· Focus on specific participants

· Use of attributive and identifying processes

· Frequent use classifiers in nominal groups.

· Use of the Simple Present Tense

Reading Time IV

A.     Read this passage carefully and answer the questions

Be Careful

More than 120 million motor vehicles (cars, buses, trucks, and motorcycle) travel on U.S. highways. Most of the people who drive these vehicles are responsible and careful. However some drivers are reckless, and dangerous to themselves and others. Each year in the United States, 50.000 people die in car accidents. Eight thousands of these are teenager. Car accidents injure almost two million people every year. Some injures are only minor cuts and bruises, but other are very serious. Some accidents result in the loss an arm or a leg. Others result in paralysis.

Talking about you:

1.      Do you drive a car or ride a motor cycle? Are you careful driver or rider? If you don’t drive or ride yet, do you want to learn? Why or why not?

2.      According to you, what are the factors of accident?

3.      What rules should the rider or driver follow in driving and riding? 

B.     Context clues

Use the context to help you define the term in bold.

1.    It’s best to have reliable employees. 

	teenage
	trustworthy
	uncaring
	untrustworthy

2.    It is best to avoid ridiculing others. 

	to ride a horse
	to make fun of
	to care deeply for
	to ride in a car

3.    Sometimes people won’t understand your abbreviations. You might want to spell them out. 

	to set apart for a special purpose
	highly skilled; proficient
	referring to beauty
	a shortened form or a word or phrase

4.    The pianist is quite adept. He plays beautifully. 

	poor
	highly skilled
	wealthy
	few skills

5.    Do you know who painted this work of art? I can’t see a name, so I guess it’s anonymous. 

	wealthy
	unknown
	known
	crazy

6.    The old-fashioned man has contrary views to his teenaged grandchildren. 

	popular
	opposite
	gentle
	kind

7.Use your best diction when speaking in front of a crowd. 

	choice of jokes
	choice of words
	paper
	clothing

8        Because children think they are immortal, they often act in dangerous ways. 

	one who never dies
	carefree
	about to meet death
	uncaring

9.       Are you a monoglot, or are you bilingual? 

	able to speak one language
	able to speak three languages
	able to speak more than three languages
	able to speak two languages

10.   Do doctors have an antidote to obesity yet? It is not healthy to be overweight.  

	drug
	cure
	stop
	delay

C.     Synonym

1. Remote

a. automatic

b. distant

c. savage

d. mean

2. Utter most nearly means

a. express

b. defer

c. borrow

d. laugh

3. Foe

a. fellow

b. friend

c. pleasant

d. enemy

4. Fatigue

a. foretell

b. decide

c. tired

d. good

5. Vintage

a. classic

b. alcoholic

c. disease

d. spoiled

D.   Antonym

1. Homogeneous

a. alike

b. indifferent

c. polite

d. unalike

2. Secret

a. friendly

b. covert

c. hidden

d. overt

3. Common

a. strange

b. uneasy

c. quick

d. fast

4. Continue is most opposite to

a. curve

b. argue

c. carry

d. pause

5. Hesitate

a. willing

b. lazy

c. unwilling

d. doubt